Ganghwa Island (강화도)

Ganghwa Island holds a unique position in Korean history. Strategically located at the mouth of the Han River, it has played a part in many of Korea's most traumatic, if fascinating, historical episodes.

The island was first fortified in the 9th Century A.D. under the Unified Silla government, but was fought over by all three of Korea’s Three Kingdoms, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla. The original intent of the structures there was to help combat piracy. Many years later, Wang Geon would establish his military credentials serving at this garrison, then go on to found the Medieval Korean kingdom of Goryeo.

In the 13th Century, the royal court of Goryeo took refuge on Ganghwa Island when Mongol forces invaded Korea in 1232. The Mongols' inability to cross the waterway protecting the island led to 40 years of warfare followed by a negotiated settlement wherein Goryeo became an ally of the Khan. This would remain one of very few settlements ever forced upon a Mongol Army. As part of the deal, however, the Mongols required that Goryeo demolish the near impregnable fortifications—three consecutive lines’ worth. Once the Mongols were gone, however, the new Joseon government rebuilt—and even expanded upon—the fortifications there.

During the Manchu invasion of Korea in 1636, the royal Joseon court attempted to repeat that trick, escaping to the protection offered by the island, but was captured en route by the fast-moving invaders. King Injo escaped instead to Namhansanseong, where the Manchus besieged his forces and starved them into submission following multiple failed attempts to storm the humongous mountain fortress.

The steadfast refusal of the later Joseon court to entreat with encroaching Western powers--and subsequently harsh royal treatment of unwanted missionaries and government emissaries who made landfall in the Hermit Kingdom--led to punitive expeditions by France in 1866, the United States in 1871, and Imperial Japan in 1875. All three of these military blows landed on Ganghwa Island. Only the last of these expeditions achieved its goal with the Treaty of Ganghwa, officially opening Korea up to Japanese trade.

Ganghwa Dolmen Site

Megalithic funerary monuments called “dolmen” are found across a wide swath of the world, but figured prominently in the Bronze Age cultures of the 1st and 2nd Millennia B.C. Ganghwa Island has one of the densest distributions of dolmen anywhere in the world. One specimen is located a mere 300 meters from the Ganghwa History Museum (highly recommended). Make no mistake, these things are massive, and must have taken significant effort to construct.

Samnangseong

A beautiful fortress in the southern half of the island, Samnangseong occupies a series of ridgelines just east of Manisan. In addition to it being a gorgeous fortification, Jeonjoksa Temple—one of the longest continuously-operated Buddhist temples in Korea—lies safely ensconced within. This site has an interesting history, being the site of a rare Joseon victory over the French during that country’s incursion into Ganghwa in 1866.

The small French company investigating reports of Joseon forces gathering at Jeonjoksa Temple must have been quite surprised to find the main gate of Samnangseong. Even more so when the fortress commander’s crack marksmen opened up from the battlements causing significant casualties amongst the stunned infantrymen.

The wall here—and late addition crenellations—is fairly crudely constructed. Consistent with its suspected early date of construction. Myth says a son of Dangun built this fortress…but the use of masonry argues against it. Likely a late Three Kingdoms fortress with Joseon era additions.

The walls here are flat-topped for most of their circumference, but they look down upon pretty steep slopes.

Looking down on the idyllic Jeonjoksa. Also gives an idea how high above the valley floor the scenic walls rise.

Can honestly say I’ve never seen anything quite like this built into a fortress this old. Essentially a Roman style arch built with brick, covered with stone. Cool!

Drainage—as usual for a Korean fortress—leading out through the wall.

This is the longest, straightest wall we found at Sangnangseong.

Jeonjoksa

Constructed in 381 AD during Korea’s Three Kingdoms Era, this is one of the longest, continually-occupied and operated temples in Korea. Nestled safely within the walls of Samnangseong, the monks of Jeonjoksa had ringside seats to some of the most singnificant moments in Korean history, from the wars of the three kingdoms, to unification under Silla, to the Mongol invasions, and Western incursions of the 19th Century. Jeonjoksa—and Ganghwa Island—played a part in them all!

The temple’s beautifully rendered bell tower.

Jeonjoksa was really decked out when we arrived, and the colors really popped!

Munsusanseong

Not technically on Ganghwa island, but certainly guarding the road between that vital sanctuary and the capital at Seoul. Munsusanseong lies just across the Han River from Ganghwa and was the scene of fighting with a French expeditionary force in 1866.

The western walls have been restored for a short distance up the slope and provide a good idea what the walls of this mountain fortress looked like in their glory days.

Beyond the end of restoration work on the western side you can just barely pick the wall out from the overgrown brush.  Essentially the walls deteriorate as you progress up the hill on either side, then reappear as you head back down. — Beyond the end of restoration work on the western side you can just barely pick the wall out from the overgrown brush. Essentially the walls deteriorate as you progress up the hill on either side, then reappear as you head back down.

This small gateway, however, stood out as being fairly clear of brush.  Likely means the locals used it as a pathway up and over the hill. — This small gateway, however, stood out as being fairly clear of brush. Likely means the locals used it as a pathway up and over the hill.

And this view from the peak shows why Munsusanseong existed at all.  The land visible across the Han River is Ganghwa Island, longtime refuge of Korea's royal family in times of trouble.  It would see trouble of its own in the late 19th Ce… — And this view from the peak shows why Munsusanseong existed at all. The land visible across the Han River is Ganghwa Island, longtime refuge of Korea's royal family in times of trouble. It would see trouble of its own in the late 19th Century. Note just how extended this mountain fortress really is, as the lower walls and remaining gate are way down there, lost in the distance near the river bank.

Happened upon this site during our hike reminding me once again that Munsusanseong is an active archaeological site as well as an on-going restoration effort.  Look forward to seeing it fully restored. — Happened upon this site during our hike reminding me once again that Munsusanseong is an active archaeological site as well as an on-going restoration effort. Look forward to seeing it fully restored.

The partially restored eastern walls bear the fruits of those effort.

This shows the end of the current testoration effort along the Eastern Wall.  Expect this point to have advanced significantly next time I'm able to return. — This shows the end of the current testoration effort along the Eastern Wall. Expect this point to have advanced significantly next time I'm able to return.

ganghwa sanseong

The center piece, the refuge of last resort for the Goryeo court during eight of nine Mongol invasions, Ganghwa Sanseong formed the inner core of the island’s extensive defenses. Formidable enough to keep the invaders at bey, over 40 years the Mongols never made a successful attempt to take the small island. While the walls were torn down once peace prevailed, the demise of Goryeo and rise of the Joseon Era meant new policies, and Ganghwa Sanseong was rebuilt, this time in stone. Heavily damaged during the Korean War, the current (third) edition of the fortress is a faithful reconstruction.

We began our walk at the East Gate…primarily because there’s a parking lot nearby. Turned out to be fortuitous as there was an incredible Makguksu restaurant nearby!

From the East Gate, the wall goes uphill across the street.

Much of the visible parts of the wall have been reconstructed since the Korean War, but once you get out of sight, the remains are…well…as they remain. Fortunately for me, I’m fascinated by both!

And sometimes the wall seems to revert to its original (Goryeo Era) form of packed earth. This berm follows the course of the old wall down to the South Gate. You have to go on a little bit of faith at this point as it otherwise seems you’ve run out of wall.

Crossing the main street again you find the South Gate.

A few hundred meters above the South Gate, the reconstruction ends…but not the wall itself. It just keeps climbing!

As you reach the highest—and steepest—point, you can just make out the command post atop the hill.

Joseon Era command post at the highest point of Ganghwa Sanseong.

Even on a hazy day, the views from the command post are incredible! The entire island of Ganghwa would have been clearly visible in those days. (Apologies for the speck of dust on the lens…it will survive there far longer than I care to admit!)

At a certain point heading back down into the city, the wall becomes a bit unstable and you finally reach a point at which signs direct a detour. Not a bad thing for us as by this time it was quite hot, and a short stroll through the shade was nice.

A water gate, allowing the stream to continue to flow to the city. At a time without running water…this was it, but protecting the portal remained important.

Goryeo Era Palace Site

This is the site built to house the Goryeo king and his court when the government moved from the capital at Kaegyeong (modern Kaeseong in North Korea) to Ganghwa Island. The move happened so fast at the onset of the 2nd Mongol Invasion, that the court lived in temporary accommodations for a year until construction of a more suitable palace compound was complete. This move—and the court’s discomfort—facilitated a 40 year resistance against the Mongol invaders. Later, during the Joseon Era, the grounds were repurposed for government (bureaucratic) business and took their current form.

The palace grounds remain—as expected—immaculate.

The building inside are decidedly Joseon…in both architecture and color.

The palace bell “tower”. The current bell housed inside is a replica. The original bell—from the Goryeo Era—is currently on display at the Ganghwa History Museum (also highly recommended!).

The sanseong command post as seen from the Goryeo Era palace site.

Wolgotjin Fort and Yonmijeong Pavilion

The original defenses which so deterred the Mongols from attacking the island royal refuge, were built hastily of packed earth. The third—outer—ring pushed as close to the coast as terrain allowed, offering the Mongols no place to land and mass. The current stone fortifications evident everywhere along the coast represent the Joseon Era recognition of the island’s value for defense. These stone fortifications are generally thought to have been sited atop the trace of the older, Goryeo Era fortifications and, with a rare exception noted below, you can see why. Wolgotjin Fort is the farthest north, near where the Goryeo Era fortifications began, running some 23 kilometers south to Chojijin.

Beautifully reconstructed, Wolgotjin Fort was constructed on a promontory overlooking the Han and Imjin Rivers estuary. There was supposedly one more northerly stretch of Goryeo Era fortifications, but these are now essentially inaccessible.

A very interesting find at Wolgotjin. A Joseon Era military officer, General Hwanghyung, who’d had an amazingly successful career, was rewarded by the king, with Yeonmijeong Pavilion (inside Wolgotjin) and the right to build a house on the site. This stone marker indicates where his retirement home—a pension of sorts—was once located.

The circular bastion atop the highest point of the hill.

Gazing through the stone doorway toward Yeonmijeong Pavilion.

Yeonmijeong Pavilion, overlooking the Han and Imjin Rivers estuary, provided a key observation point. It was the nearest point to the road to the capital at Kaekyeong, and as such, continued to be in use long after the Mongols had departed.

A quick survey of the surrounding territory. During the original Goryeo construction it was thought that points like Wolgotjin would have stretched into a continuous line of packed-earth fortifications all along the eastern coast of the island. It is likely, then, that the wall at the time stretched from this high point to the wooded hill mass visible to the south beyond the gate, and then on down the coast.

The current form of Wolgotjin reflects the state of military affairs during the later Joseon era. These are cannon ports, allowing large (smoothbore) guns to be aimed at approaching ships.

The view from Wolgotjin. This is the Han and Imjin Rivers estuary. Consequently, the green area beyond the Imjin is actually North Korea.

Gapgotdon

Ganghwa Gapgotdon is another high point along the coast fortified by Goryeo and then turned into a stone-clad strongpoint during the Joseon Era. Gapgotdon is extra special as it was the place where the French landed in 1866. It was at Gapgotdon that French troops landed, broke into Ganghwa Sanseong, and sacked the palace, including the repository of irreplaceable historical documents. Afterwards, the French departed the island and attacked Munsusanseong visible across the water. The Ganghwa War Museum is also located here. Small, but well done and well worth the time spent there.

Munsusan, and the fortress built upon it, literally lies just across from Gapgotdon. The Joseon troops stationed there would have been able to observe everything the French were doing on Ganghwa Island.

A picture of the coast here. The mud flats surrounding most of Ganghwa Island is often remarked upon by those few accounts from invaders which have come down to us. Added to the fortifications ashore, this must have seemed an insurmountable obstacle to the Mongols across the water.

Found this map of Ganghwa hiking trails posted at Gapgot. Nicely highlights the defensive works everywhere, but especially long the eastern coast.

Yongjinjin Fort

From Yongjinjin Fort south to Gwangseongbo, all that remains are the small dondae established during the Joseon Era. Like those above, however, Yongjinjin represents another construction on high ground overlooking the coast and so was probably part of the original Goryeo fortifications.

Essentially a circular stone fortification, with cannon ports—befitting a late Joseon Era bastion—facing the waterline.

Again at Yongjinjin its easy to see this site tying into high terrain along the coast to the south, presenting a solid line of fortified heights to the Mongols across the water.

Yongdang Dondae

The tiny “dondaes” built by Joseon liberally dot the coastline all around Ganghwa Island. Here, however, along the east coast it is presumed that they replaced earlier, packed-earth fortifications built to deter and, if necessary, repel, the Mongol invaders. The site upon which Yongdang was built is a high promontory overlooking the water far below. It would have stood out to potential invaders across the water. The current stone construction is consistent with later Joseon Era structures, complete with cannon ports facing the water.

Less than 100 meters off the main coastal road, we almost missed this one as foliage blocks it from view.

Hwado Dondae

I mentioned above that there was one exception I found to the general rule of thumb wherein Joseon Era fortifications were built atop the sites of former Goryeo ones on Ganghwa. Hwado Dondae is it. Seemingly removed from any defensible terrain, and wholly unsuitable to defense by infantry or artillery, it appears little more than a hardstand along the coast, tying in more viable fortifications like Yongdang to the north and Odu to the south. Until I run across a more viable explanation, I’ll assume that Hwado was not part of the old Goryeo fortifications, and was designed to provide a potential invader the impression—not the reality—of strength at this point along the coast.

Hwado is literally flat on top. No wall to hide behind, no gun ports…nothing. An odd “fortification”.

The only real value in stopping at Hwado is to once more point out the difficulty posed by Ganghwa’s legendary mud flats.

Odu Observation Point

Odu is, once again, situated on good, defensible high ground overlooking the water below. The terrain here is suitably forbidding on its own, but the works atop the hill make it doubly so. Odu is visually interesting with the dark brick crenellations atop the lighter stone walls. This point would have tied in nicely with the earlier Goryeo Era defensive line.

Passing through the entryway at Odu, the cannon ports are immediately noticeable.

The view from Odu. This point is very close—nearly within bowshot—to the Korean mainland.

Chojijin

Constructed in 1656, this tiny bastion on Ganghwa Island is where U.S. Marines first came ashore during the Korean Punitive expedition of 1871. The fortress is small, but certainly strategic, standing where the Han River empties into the Yellow Sea. The Han is extremely narrow at this point, offering Joseon Korea an excellent location for the deployment of coastal defense artillery.

Guide map of Chojijin posted at the site.

As the parked cars make clear, Chojijin--as with all the Ganghwa fortifications--are easily accessible.

The only entrance into Chojijin.  This is a really small fortification. — The only entrance into Chojijin. This is a really small fortification.

Looking back at the only way in or out . . .

Cannon of this type, based on Chinese models of the period which were in turn copied from the West, constituted the primary weaponry of Chojijin.

Gun revetment at Chojijin.  Built into the wall itself, the walkway protected by crenelations goes right over the top. — Gun revetment at Chojijin. Built into the wall itself, the walkway protected by crenelations goes right over the top.

View of the Han River from the revetment.  The mud flats visible through this gun port will provide the  assaulting U.S. Marines greater resistance than did Chojinin's meager garrison. — View of the Han River from the revetment. The mud flats visible through this gun port will provide the assaulting U.S. Marines greater resistance than did Chojinin's meager garrison.

View inside Chojijin.  The small red structure in the center would have been the command post for this fortification. — View inside Chojijin. The small red structure in the center would have been the command post for this fortification.

Now you can really see the mud flats that complicate any landing along the Han River side of Ganghwa Island.  These were virtually an extension of the fortresses walls, creating a difficult-to-traverse zone within easy range of Chojijin's canno… — Now you can really see the mud flats that complicate any landing along the Han River side of Ganghwa Island. These were virtually an extension of the fortresses walls, creating a difficult-to-traverse zone within easy range of Chojijin's cannon and muskets.

And--having nothing at all to do with anything--directly across the river from Chojijin lies an old U.S. Landing Ship Tank (LST).  Someday I'll go back and figure out what that's all about! — And--having nothing at all to do with anything--directly across the river from Chojijin lies an old U.S. Landing Ship Tank (LST). Someday I'll go back and figure out what that's all about!

Deokjinjin

Following up their successful assault on an abandoned Chojijin, U.S. Forces next moved overland against this sprawling fortification just to the North. The fort being designed to defend against a seaborne approach, this garrison withdrew as well to the protection offered by Gwangseongbo even further North.

Guide map of Dokjinjin posted at the site.

The main gate of Dokjinjin.  Again, this structure is serviced by a fairly large parking lot. — The main gate of Dokjinjin. Again, this structure is serviced by a fairly large parking lot.

External view of the main walls of Dokjinjin.

More of the walls, this time looking back toward the gate complex.  The Han River flows just to the right of this picture. — More of the walls, this time looking back toward the gate complex. The Han River flows just to the right of this picture.

And this--Namjang Battery--is why people visit Dokjinjin.  While most guns in a coastal defense system are arrayed to execute what is called plunging fire from heights, this large battery of cannon is set at waterline, allowing even short shots… — And this--Namjang Battery--is why people visit Dokjinjin. While most guns in a coastal defense system are arrayed to execute what is called plunging fire from heights, this large battery of cannon is set at waterline, allowing even short shots to skip their way across the water to impact any ships sailing up the river. This provided a type of crossfire (level fire and plunging) that would have been very effective against shipping, likely the very reason the U.S. attacked from inland.

Ground-level view of Namjang Battery and the many revetments therein.  Note Dokjin Dondae, containing the plunging fire element of this nasty coastal defensive structure, up on the hill beyond. — Ground-level view of Namjang Battery and the many revetments therein. Note Dokjin Dondae, containing the plunging fire element of this nasty coastal defensive structure, up on the hill beyond.

Approaching the angular Dokjin Dondae, the hill upon which it sits long since overgrown with trees and brush.

The view back north toward Namjang Battery from Dokjin Dondae.

External view of Dokjin Dondae gun revetment.

Stone stele erected in 1876 by royal decree, warning that foreign ships are strictly forbidden to approach Joseon territory.  It lies just below the walls of Dokjin Dondae. — Stone stele erected in 1876 by royal decree, warning that foreign ships are strictly forbidden to approach Joseon territory. It lies just below the walls of Dokjin Dondae.

Gwangseongbo

This was the scene of the only significant battle during the U.S. expedition to Korea in 1871 and all but ended the campaign. U.S. Marines vigorously assaulted the extended fortification from the land side. The outgunned Joseon troops fought bravely but were overrun, their commander killed in the fighting along with several hundred of his countrymen.

Primary gate of Gwanseongbo.  Starting to get a feel for the Korean style of fortifications?  There is a continuity of style at work here that makes Korean defensive structures fairly distinguishable from those of their neighbors. — Primary gate of Gwanseongbo. Starting to get a feel for the Korean style of fortifications? There is a continuity of style at work here that makes Korean defensive structures fairly distinguishable from those of their neighbors.

Inside Gwangseongbo.  Note the cannon revetment in the left foreground and steps leading to the gate complex beyond. — Inside Gwangseongbo. Note the cannon revetment in the left foreground and steps leading to the gate complex beyond.

External view of the gate complex at Gwangseongbo.

Inside the circular Sondolmokdondae, scene of the climactic, if short-lived, battle between U.S. Marines and troops of the Joseon Army.  Armed primarily with matchlock muskets and melee weapons, the defending force of some 300 men fought a shar… — Inside the circular Sondolmokdondae, scene of the climactic, if short-lived, battle between U.S. Marines and troops of the Joseon Army. Armed primarily with matchlock muskets and melee weapons, the defending force of some 300 men fought a sharp, hand-to-hand engagement, but were ultimately no match for the assaulting Marine infantry.

A long narrow wall snakes it's way out to Gwangseongbo's most distinctive feature, the fortified protrusion of stone jutting out into the Han River known as Yongdudondae.  This scenic, fortified observation post offers incredible views up and d… — A long narrow wall snakes it's way out to Gwangseongbo's most distinctive feature, the fortified protrusion of stone jutting out into the Han River known as Yongdudondae. This scenic, fortified observation post offers incredible views up and down the river and was reconstructed in 1977. Artillery placed here further complicated any naval approach unsupported by ground troops.

Nice view of Yongdudondae Observation Post.

The tidal race below Yongdudondae is extremely fast, forming mini-whirlpools whenever the tide comes in or goes out.  Yet one more obstacle in this 17th Century defense in depth! — The tidal race below Yongdudondae is extremely fast, forming mini-whirlpools whenever the tide comes in or goes out. Yet one more obstacle in this 17th Century defense in depth!

North side of the walls leeading to Yongdudondae.  The circular Sondolmokdondae occupies the crest of the hill in the background and was the scene of most of the fighting on June 11th, 1871. — North side of the walls leeading to Yongdudondae. The circular Sondolmokdondae occupies the crest of the hill in the background and was the scene of most of the fighting on June 11th, 1871.

Gwangseongbo's small coastal defense battery.

Across from the revetments you can see just how narrow the Han has become at this point.  Within that copse of trees across the way once lay Gwangseongbo's companion fort, the two structures intended to control this vital maritime chokepoint.&n… — Across from the revetments you can see just how narrow the Han has become at this point. Within that copse of trees across the way once lay Gwangseongbo's companion fort, the two structures intended to control this vital maritime chokepoint. I'm not sure whether or not anything remains on that side of the river, but its on my list of places to check out next time I'm back in Korea.

A view from the battery to the north with Yongdudondae just visible on the far upper right edge of the picture.  Sondolmokdondae is off to the left. — A view from the battery to the north with Yongdudondae just visible on the far upper right edge of the picture. Sondolmokdondae is off to the left.

Taekji Dondae

Constructed in 1679, this bite-sized fortification was essentially a fortified battery with cannon guarding the western coast of Ganghwa Island. Holding no more than about a company of troops, these tiny strong points once dotted the coastline, constituting the front-line defense of Ganghwa Island in the later Joseon Era.